Language

Find out about the pegword mnemonic

Here are pegwords I've thought up in the Italian language.

As with the original example, let's try it out with our cranial nerves.

In italiano, sono i nervi cranici:

1. olfattorio
2. ottico
3. oculumotore
4. trocleare
5. trigemino
6. abducente
7. faciale
8. cocleare
9. glossofaríngeo
10. vago
11. accessorio
12. ipoglosso

Each mnemonic image contains the pegword image plus something to denote the cranial nerve. In some cases, that can be very simple. But if the name of the nerve is less obvious, there will be items that refer to the function of the nerve and ones that provide keywords to the name. Such keywords are written in bold.

1 è la luna e il nervo cranico 1 è olfattivo - la luna con un grande naso:

1 is the moon and cranial nerve 1 is olfactory — the moon with a big nose:

2 è un bue e il nervo cranico 2 è ottico - il bue usa una lente d'ingrandimento per leggere il giornale:

2 is an ox and cranial nerve 2 is optic — the ox uses a magnifying glass to read the newspaper:

3 è un fratè e il nervo cranico 3 è oculomotore - grandi occhiali sul motociclista che viene fermato bruscamente dai poteri del fratè:

3 is a friar and cranial nerve 3 is oculomotor — big goggles on the motorcyclist who is abruptly halted by the powers of the friar:

4 è una stella e il nervo cranico 4 è trocleare - la punta acuminata della stella penetra l'occhio ma il tricolore asciuga il sangue:

4 is a star and cranial nerve 4 is trochlear — the sharp point of the star pierces the eye but the tricolore wipes up the blood:

5 è lingue e il nervo cranico 5 è trigemino - relativo alla mascella, quindi abbiamo due lingue nella mascella e tre gemme che cadono sulla lingua distesa:

5 is tongues and cranial nerve 5 is trigeminal — relating to the jaw, so we have two tongues in the jaw and three gems falling onto the outstretched tongue:

6 è rosai e il nervo cranico 6 è abducente - anche in relazione con l'occhio, quindi abbiamo rose che galleggiano sul succo di albicocca e qualcuno che raggiunge per far cadere un occhio nel bicchiere:

6 is rosebushes and cranial nerve 6 is abducens — also relating to the eye, so we have roses floating on the apricot juice and someone reaching to drop an eye in the glass:

7 è scalette e il nervo cranico 7 è facciale - una scala che corre fino alla bocca su una faccina sorridente:

7 is ladders and cranial nerve 7 is facial — a ladder running up to the mouth on a smiley face:

8 è biscotti e il nervo cranico è uditivo - un cappello da cuoco tra due orecchie mentre presenta i suoi biscotti:

8 is biscuits and cranial nerve is auditory — a cook's hat between two ears as he presents his biscuits:

9 è nave e il nervo cranico 9 è glossofaringeo - relativo alla gola, quindi ecco un uomo che sta per ingoiare la nave con il rosmarino:

9 is a ship and cranial nerve 9 is glossopharyngeal — relating to the throat, so here is a man about to swallow the ship with rosemary:

10 è radici e il nervo cranico 10 è il vago - relativo al cuore, quindi una forma del cuore vaga rispecchiata dalla forma fatta dai due radici:

10 is radishes and cranial nerve 10 is vagus — relating to the heart, so a vague heart shape mirrored by the shape made by the two radishes:

11 è spinaci e il nervo cranico 11 è accessorio - relativo al movimento della testa, quindi abbiamo una donna che scuote la testa mentre mette gli spinaci nella sua borsa (un accessorio):

11 is spinach and cranial nerve 11 is accessory — relating to head movement, so we have a woman shaking her head as she puts spinach in her bag:

12 è noci e il nervo cranico 12 è ipoglosso - relativo alla lingua, quindi un ipodermico che inietta la lingua mentre cerca di ingoiare le noci nei loro gusci:

12 is walnuts and cranial nerve 12 is hypoglossal — relating to the tongue, so a hypodermic injecting the tongue as it tries to swallow walnuts in their shells:

Find out about the pegword mnemonic

Here are pegwords I've thought up in the French language.

As with the original example, let's try it out with our cranial nerves.

En francais, les nerfs crâniens son:

1. olfactif
2. optique
3. oculomotor
4. trochlear
5. trijumeau
6. abducens
7. facial
8. auditive
9. glosso
10. vague ou pneumogastrique
11. accessoire
12. hypoglosse

Each mnemonic image contains the pegword image plus something to denote the cranial nerve. In some cases, that can be very simple. But if the name of the nerve is less obvious, there will be items that refer to the function of the nerve and ones that provide keywords to the name. Such keywords are written in bold.

1 est la lune et nerf crânien 1 est olfactif — imaginez la lune avec un gros nez:

1 is the moon and cranial nerve 1 is olfactory — imagine the moon with a large nose:

2 est les yeux et nerf crânien 2 est optique — soulignons les yeux avec une loupe:

2 is eyes and cranial nerve 2 is optic — let's highlight the eyes with a magnifying glass:

3  est une croix et nerf crânien 3 est oculomotor — imaginez un motard portant de grandes lunettes de protection qui s'écrase dans une ambulance avec une grosse croix sur le côté:

3 is a cross and cranial nerve 3 is oculomotor — imagine a motorcyclist wearing big goggles who crashes into an ambulance with a giant cross on the side:

4 es un arbre et nerf crânien 4 est trochlear — le gros oeil attrapé dans l'arbre signale que ce nerf est aussi relié aux yeux et que le troquile nous indique le nom:

4 is a tree and cranial nerve 4 is trochlear — the large eye caught in the tree signals that this nerve is also related to eyes and the hummingbird cues us to the name:

Si "troquile" ne vous convient pas, vous pouvez utiliser le mot-clé "troc / truck":

If "troquile" doesn't work for you, you could use the keyword truck:

5 est une sainte et nerf crânien 5 est trijumeau — ce nerf se rapporte à la mâchoire, et notre mot clé est trois jumeaux:

5 is a saint and cranial nerve 5 is trigeminal —the nerve relates to the jaw, and our keyword is triplets:

6 est un vis et nerf crânien 6 est abducens — imaginez qu’une grosse vis a enlevé un œil et perce maintenant un abricot pour en faire du jus d’abricot dans lequel l’œil est sur le point de tomber ('jus' est là pour souligner le 'duce' en abducens):

6 is a screw and cranial nerve 6 is adbucens — this relates to eyes again, so imagine a large screw has removed an eye and now pierces an apricot to make apricot juice, into which the eye is about to be dropped:

7 es une tête et nerf crânien 7 est facial — imaginez un visage souriant sur notre tête rétrécie:

7 is a head and cranial nerve is facial — imagine a smiling face on our shrunken head:

8  est magique et nerf crânien 8 es auditive — la boule de cristal magique a des oreilles:

8 is magic and cranial nerve is auditory — the magic crystal ball has ears:

9 est un œuf et nerf crânien 9 es glosso — ce nerf est relié à la gorge, alors imaginez un garçon allongé sur un glacier, un œuf lui glissant dans la gorge:

9 is an egg and cranial nerve 9 is glossopharyngeal — this nerve relates to the throat, so imagine a boy lying back on a glacier, an egg sliding down his throat:

10 est une saucisse et nerf crânien 10 est vague ou pneumogastrique — ce nerf concerne le cœur, alors imaginez un cœur flottant sur la mer avec la saucisse à travers le pneu et une grosse vague venant les submerger.

10 is a sausage and cranial nerve 10 is vagus —this nerve concerns the heart, so imagine a heart floating on the sea with the sausage stuck through the tyre and a giant wave coming to drown them:

11 est un éponge et nerf crânien 11 est accessoire — ce nerf est lié au mouvement de la tête; nous avons donc une femme qui secoue la tête en essuyant son sac (accessoire) avec une éponge:

11 is a sponge and cranial nerve 11 is accessory — this nerve relates to head movement; so we have a woman shaking her head while wiping her bag with a sponge:

12 est une blouse et nerf crânien 12 est hypoglosse, qui se rapporte à la langue, voici donc une blouse à petites langues et hypodermique:

12 is a blouse and cranial nerve 12 is hypoglossal, which relates to the tonge, so here is a blouse patterned with little tongues and hypodermics:

As I said in my discussion of different scripts, the Hellenic languages use the Greek alphabet. Here it is. I’m afraid the table is a little complicated, because (a) each letter has a name, which it’s useful to know, and (b) there are some differences in pronunciation between Ancient Greek (which is still a language that people want to learn today), and Modern Greek. To try and keep it simple, I have only mentioned those that are not as they seem to an English speaker (Ancient Greek), or, in Modern Greek, those that vary from their Ancient sounds.

	Name	Transcription	Ancient Greek pronunciation	Modern Greek pronunciation
Α α	alpha	a	short as in await or cup, or long as in father	as in father
Β β	beta	b		v as in vote
Γ γ	gamma	g	as in get, but sometimes like sing	y as in yellow
Δ δ	delta	d		th as in then
Ε ε	epsilon	e	short e, as in set
Ζ ζ	zeta	z	as in wisdom	z as in zoo
Η η	eta (long e)	e	long e, as in hair	i as in machine
Θ θ	theta	th	t as in top	th as in thin
Ι ι	iota	i	short, as in hit
Κ κ	kappa	k
Λ λ	lambda	l
Μ μ	mu	m
Ν ν	nu	n
Ξ ξ	xi	ks
Ο ο	omicron	o	short as in pot
Π π	pi	p
Ρ ρ	rho	r	trilled
Σ ς	sigma	s
Τ τ	tau	t
Υ υ	upsilon	u or y	short as in French lune, or long as in French ruse
Φ φ	phi	ph	as in pot	f as in five
Χ χ	chi (kh)	ch	as in cat	ch as in loch or Bach
Ψ ψ	psi	ps	both pronounced, as in lips
Ω ω	omega (long o)	ô	as in saw	short o, as in soft

In my workbook for the Greek script, I use several strategies to help learners achieve mastery quickly and thoroughly. These strategies include:

• grouping
• visual mnemonics
• test questions to help you practice
• vocabulary lists for further practice.

These vocab lists appear for each group of letters, so you can practice on words that only use the letters you have learned. To make them easier to read (and also, beneficially, remember), the words are mostly cognate with English words (my Indo-European Cognate Dictionary was invaluable for that).

Some of the visual mnemonics are ‘cards’ for each letter. These mnemonic cards include a keyword to help you remember the name of the letter, and another one to help you remember how it’s pronounced. Here are some examples:

 

 

 

 

Each “card” shows, first, the upper and lower case forms of the Greek letter, written in a color picked out from the picture. Below these is the English letter that is translated as its equivalent. Below that is a word, in English, showing how that letter is pronounced. The part of the word that is the appropriate sound is written using the Greek letter. A picture showing the meaning of the word is then shown — not because the word is anything other than simple! but because images are generally much more memorable than words.

The images, where necessary, are also used to help remember the shapes of unfamiliar letters, for example:

You can augment the lessons in the book with some activities I've provided. Even if you don't have the book, if you are learning Russian, or are interested in refreshing your knowledge of it, you may find the games helpful or fun.

As I said in my discussion of different scripts, Russian uses the Cyrillic alphabet. Here it is (the 3rd column shows the English counterpart):

А  а   a

Б  б   b

В  в   v

Г  г   g

Д  д   d

Е  е   ye

Ё  ё   yo

Ж  ж   zh

З  з   z

И  и   i

Й  й   y

К  к   c

Л  л   l

М  м   m

Н  н   n

О  о   o

П  п   p

Р  р   r

С  с   s

Т  т   t

У  у   u

Ф  ф   f

Х  х   kh

Ц  ц   ts

Ч  ч   ch

Ш  ш   sh

Щ  щ   sh (softer)

Ъ  ъ   hard sign

Ы  ы   y

Ь  ь   soft sign

Э  э   e

Ю  ю   yu

Я  я   ya

In my workbook for the Russian script, I use several strategies to help learners achieve mastery quickly and thoroughly. These strategies include:

• grouping
• visual mnemonics
• test questions to help you practice
• vocabulary lists for further practice.

These vocab lists appear for each group of letters, so you can practice on words that only use the letters you have learned. To make them easier to read (and also, beneficially, remember), the words are mostly cognate with English words (my Indo-European Cognate Dictionary was invaluable for that).

Some of the visual mnemonics are ‘cards’ for each letter. For example;

 

 

 

 

Each “card” shows, first, the upper and lower case forms of the Russian letter, written in a color picked out from the picture. Below these is the English letter that is translated as its equivalent. Below that is a word, in English, showing how that letter is pronounced. The part of the word that is the appropriate sound is written using the Russian letter. A picture showing the meaning of the word is then shown — not because the word is anything other than simple! but because images are generally much more memorable than words.

The images, where necessary, are also used to help remember the shapes of unfamiliar letters, for example:

The images are also used in stories to help remember the order of the letters.

You can augment the lessons in the book with some activities I've provided. Even if you don't have the book, if you are learning Russian, or are interested in refreshing your knowledge of it, you may find the games helpful or fun.

 

Learning a new language is made considerably more difficult if that language is written in an unfamiliar script. For some, indeed, that proves too massive a hurdle, and they give up the attempt.

Scripts, like languages, also vary considerably in difficulty. There are two main reasons for this. One is the number of characters to learn, and here an alphabetic script (like the Roman one we’re using now) has a big advantage. The marvellous wealth of the English language is available using only 26 letters! Most alphabets come in at somewhere around this number (although the largest, Khmer, is 74).

A syllabic system, on the other hand, ranges from around 50 to several hundred! Japanese hiragana, for example, contains 75.

Japanese is a very interesting example, because it has three scripts in use: two syllabic and one logographic. The logographic, which is called kanji, derives from the Chinese. Logographic scripts contain thousands of characters. The Japanese Ministry of Education prescribes a ‘basic’ 1,850 as most essential for everyday use.

It’s not surprising that mastery of two syllabic scripts and nearly 2,000 kanji proves a stumbling block for many students of the language!

The second reason for the great variation in script difficulty is the complexity of the characters. While some logographic characters can be as simple as Roman letters, these are few. Most are complex, some bewilderingly so.

If you want to learn a language that uses a script different to your own, you will find it much easier if you concentrate on the script as a separate issue (don’t simply struggle through trying to learn the language and script at the same time). You want to get your familiarity with the script to something approaching automaticity — that is, you don’t need to think about what the letter is, you just know it. The only way that’s going to happen is through practice.

Of course you get practice if you work on the language and script at the same time, but the problem is that the practice is not concentrated enough to speed your progress. You will actually save time (and make it more likely that you’ll continue with the language), if you master the script swiftly, through concentrated practice. (These remarks refer only to alphabetic or syllabic scripts, which have a more limited number of characters — whatever you do, you’re not going to master a logographic system swiftly!)

As always, though, your need for practice will be reduced if you can make the letters more memorable.

Within the Indo-European language family, there are essentially 5 scripts in use. The most common is the Roman script, which is what English uses. The Hellenic languages use (of course) the Greek alphabet. Russian and many other Slavic languages use the Cyrillic alphabet. Sanskrit and Hindi (and many other Indian languages) use Devanagari. Persian is written in the Persian alphabet, which is a modified Arabic script. Pashto, similarly, is written in its own modified Arabic script.

I have produced a short workbook for the Russian script, which uses grouping and visual mnemonics to make the letters more memorable, test questions to help you practice the letters, and vocabulary lists for further practice. The vocab lists appear for each group of letters, so you can practice on words that only use the letters you have learned. They also use words that are mostly cognate with English words (my Indo-European Cognate Dictionary was invaluable for that), or are otherwise easy to remember. Thus you can not only practice your letters, but also pick up some few hundreds of words as well.

I’ve put up a page with the Russian alphabet and some of these visual mnemonics.

I have also now produced a similar workbook for the Greek alphabet, which includes 800 words in ancient Greek and a special section of medical and scientific root words. You can see a page with the Greek alphabet and some visual mnemonics from the workbook.

There are also some games for both the Russian and Greek alphabets.

In my article on using cognates to help you learn vocabulary in another language, I gave the example of trying to learn the German word for important, ‘wichtig’, and how there’s no hook there to help you remember it (which is why so many of us fall back on rote repetition to try to hammer vocabulary into our heads). However, I pointed out, if you knew that wichtig descends from a root that also produced weigh, weight, and weighty, you could reframe the translation as wichtig = weighty, important, and now you have your meaningful connection.

Such connections don’t do away entirely with the need to practice, but they do mean that much less practice is required. You just have to focus on that meaningful connection.

Let’s have a look at that in action.

A list of the 1,000 most commonly spoken Italian words, generated from subtitles of movies and television series, includes 475 nouns plus 17 numbers (cardinal and ordinal, so I’ve put them in a separate category).

I have classified all 475 nouns into groups based on the available meaningful connections for an English speaker learning Italian:

• 208 are very easy, meaning they’re very close to their English counterparts (Group 1)

• 54 are still fairly easy, being cognate with their English counterparts, and similar enough if you’re looking for it (Group 2)

• 101 are harder to see, but are still cognate (Group 3)

• 77 are still cognate, but more difficult (Group 4)

• 23 have cognates, but with obscure words or common French or Spanish words, or the similarity is much less evident (Group 5)

• 12, and only 12, are unrelated, and thus require a mnemonic connection (Group 6)

Of the 17 numbers, all are cognate, and most of them quite obviously so.

In other words, about 94% of this group have some meaningful connection with an English word. I will agree that the nouns and numbers are far more likely to be cognate than other parts of speech, but still, this is impressive.

I am working on a workbook that will expand on these, and contain all the top 1000 words. In the meantime, I hope the following lists of these nouns and numbers are useful.

Here are the numbers that appear in the list:

uno, one

due, two — think duo, dual

tre, three — also cognate with tri-, as in triangle, trio, tripod

quattro, four — think of quadruple, quadrilateral, quadruped, square

cinque, five — cognate with five, but this is not very obvious; also cognate with quinquennial and quinate, and of course French cinq

sei, six — cognate, but you do have to focus on the first part of ‘six’!

sette, seven — cognate but it may help to think of September (which used to the 7th month, before the Romans reformed the calendar by popping in what would become July and August), also septenarian and septuagenarian; also French sept

otto, eight — think octagon, octopus, octave

nove, nine — French neuf, English November (same reason: it started off as the 9th month), novena

dieci, ten — cognate with decimal, and French dix

venti, twenty — okay, there are words in English cognate with this, but they’re pretty rare; still, if you drop the initial t, the words become much more similar

cento, hundred — cognate with cent, century

migliaia, thousand — think of millimeter, millisecond, etc

milione, million

primo, first — think of primary

secondo, second

terzo, third

 

Ok, let’s look at the nouns. First, the ones that are very similar to their English counterparts:

Group 1

abilità, skill, ability

accordo, accord, agreement, chord (mus.)

animale, animal

appartamento, apartment, flat

area, area

arte, art

atomo, atom

atto, act

auto, car (automobile)

banca, bank

banda, band

bar, bar

base, base

bit, bit

blocco, block

bordo, edge, border

campo, field, camp

capitale, capital

capitano, captain

carattere, character

caso, case

causa, cause

cella, cell

cent, cent

centro, center

città, city, town

classe, class

colonia, colony

colonna, column

colore, color

commercio, trade, commerce

condizione, condition

consonante, consonant

continente, continent

controllo, control

copia, copy

corda, rope, cord

corrente, current

corso, course

costa, coast

costo, cost

cotone, cotton

cuoco, cook

cura, care, treatment, cure

danza, dance

decimale, decimal

deserto, desert

difficoltà, trouble, difficulty

discussioni, discussion, argument

divisione, division

dizionario, dictionary

dollaro, dollar

effetto, effect

elemento, element

energia, energy

esempio, example

esercizio, exercise

esperienza, experience

esperimento, experiment

est, east

evento, event

famiglia, family

fatto, fact

feltro, felt

fico, fig

fiera, fair, exhibition

figura, figure

finale, final

finitura, finish

foresta, forest

forma, form, shape

forza, force, strength

frase, sentence, phrase

frazione, fraction

frutta, fruit

gas, gas

gatto, cat

giardino, garden

gruppo, group

idea, idea

industria, industry

insetto, insect

interesse, interest

lettera, letter

liquido, liquid

linea, line

livello, level

log, log

lotto, lot

macchina, machine

magnete, magnet

mais, maize, corn

mappa, map

marchio, mark

massa, mass

materia, matter

materiale, material

melodia, melody

messaggio, message

modello, model, pattern

motivo, reason, motive

metallo, metal

metodo, method

minuto, minute

molecola, molecule

momento, moment

montagna, mountain

monte, mount, mountain

moto, motion

motore, engine, motor

musica, music

natura, nature

nazione, nation

nome, name

nord, north

nota, note

numerale, numeral

numero, number

oceano, ocean

offerta, offer

oggetto, object

olio, oil

ora, hour

ordine, order

organo, organ

pagina, page

palla, ball

papà, dad

paragrafo, paragraph

parte, part

partito, party

pausa, pause, break

periodo, period

persona, person

persone, people

pistola, gun

porto, port

posa, pose

posizione, position

possibilità, possibility, chance

pratica, practice

presente, present

problema, problem

processo, process

prodotto, product

proprietà, property

punto, point

quarto di gallone, quart

quota, share, portion, quota

quoziente, quotient

radio, radio

record, record

regione, region

resto, rest

risultato, result

rock, rock

rosa, rose

sale, salt

scala, scale

scienza, science

scuola, school

segmento, segment

segno, sign — also signal

senso, sense

sistema, system

sezione, section

sillaba, syllable

simbolo, symbol

soluzione, solution

sorpresa, surprise

sostanza, substance

spazio, space

stato, state

stazione, station

storia, story, history

strada, street, road

stringa, string

strumento, instrument, tool

studente, student

studio, study

successo, success

sud, south

suffisso, suffix

supporto, support

tavolo, table

team, team

temperatura, temperature

termine, term

test, test

tipo, type

tono, tone

totale, total

treno, train

triangolo, triangle

tubo, tube

turno, turn

ufficio, office

umano, human

unità, unit, unity

uso, use

valle, valley

valore, value

vapore, steam, vapor / vapour

velocità, speed, velocity

verbo, verb

vigore, force, vigor / vigour

villaggio, village

visita, visit

vittoria, win, victory

 

Group 2

the fairly easy nouns (but you may have to work a little to see the connection)

acqua, water — aqua, aquatic

amico, friend — amicable, Spanish amigo

angolo, corner — angle

anno, year — annual

amore, love — amorous, French amour

bambino, child, baby

barca, boat — barge, barque

bellezza, beauty — belle (the belle of the ball)

bevanda, drink — beverage

cane, dog — canine

carne, meat — carnivore

casa, home, house — well-known in English from the Spanish casa; also cognate with French chez (to, at), as in chez moi (at my house)

cavallo, horse — cavalry

cielo, sky — ceiling

collo, neck — collar

corpo, body — corpse

cravatta, tie — cravat

denti, teeth — dental, dentist

dimensione, size — dimension

discorso, speech, discourse

donna, woman — madonna, dame

erba, grass — herb

fine, end — final, also French fin

fratello, brother — fraternal, fraternity

libro, book — library

lingua, language — cognates, also linguistics, lingo

luna, moon — lunar

madre, mother — cognates, also maternal, maternity

mano, hand — manuscript (written by hand), also French main, Spanish mano

mare, sea — marine, maritime

mente, mind — cognates, also mental

meraviglia, wonder — marvel, marvellous

mercato, market — cognates, also merchant, mercantile

morte, death — mortal, mortality

naso, nose — cognates, also nasal

nave, ship — nautical, navy, navigate

pneumatico, tyre / tire — pneumatic tyre

poesia, poem — also poetry, poetic

posto, place, spot — post, position

potenza, power — potent

regola, rule — cognates, also regulate, regular

risposta, answer — response, riposte

salto, jump — saltatory, saltation, also French sauter

sangue, blood — sanguinary, sanguine, exsanguinate, also French sang, Spanish sangre

signora, lady — cognate with senior, sire

sole, sun — solar

stella, star — stellar

terra, land, earth, ground — terrestrial, also French terre

tratto, stretch (of road, river, land) — tract

uomo, man — human

vento, wind — cognates, also ventilate

vista, view, sight — vista

vita, life — vital

 

Group 3

Here are the words that are cognate, but less obviously so:

alimentazione, supply, feed, diet — alimentary (canal), alimentation

anello, ring — annulus, annular.

aria, air — aura, air, aerate, aerial

avviso, notice, advice, advertisement

calore, heat — calorie, calorific

campana, bell — is in fact the word for a church bell in English, but this is not a well-known word! also cognate with campanology, the study of bells

canzone, song — chant, French chanson

capelli, hair — capillary (because capillary veins are as fine as hair)

capo, chief — capo (come into English through the portrayals of the mafia), capital, per capita

cappello, hat — cap

coda, tail — coda, caudal, caudate.

copertura, cover — cover, covert

desiderio, wish — desire

dito, finger — digit

divertimento, fun — diversion

fattoria, farm — factor (meaning someone who acts as a business agent, especially a manager of a landed estate)

ferro, iron — ferric, meaning related to iron; also French fer

ferrovia, railway — ‘iron way’, A railway is an iron way, ferric via

fila, row — file (in the sense of people in a row, moving ‘in file’)

finestra, window —  defenestrate, also French fenêtre, Spanish fenestra, German Fenster

fiore, flower — floral, flower; also Spanish flor, French fleur

flusso, flow — cognate with flux (when something’s in flux, it’s still in flow)

foglio, sheet, leaf — folio, foliate, exfoliate

fondo, bottom — fundamental, profound.

genitore, parent — progenitor, genitive

gioia, joy

giorno, day — journal, also French jour, journée

grado, degree, level, grade — grade, gradient

grafico, chart — graph, graphic

guerra, war — guerilla, also French guerre

immagine, picture — image, imagine

impianto, plant — implant, plant

isola, island — isle, isolated

lago, lake — lagoon

lato, side — lateral (relating to the side), quadrilateral (four-sided)

latte, milk — latte (milky coffee), lactose, lactating

lavaggio, wash — lave, lavatory, launder

lavoro, work, job — labour/labor

libbra, pound — this is why the abbreviation for pound is lb. (from Latin libra), also French livre, Spanish libra, and the zodiac sign Libra

luce, light — lux, lucent, translucent

lunghezza, length — from lungo, meaning long

maschi, men — macho, masculine

mattina, morning — matins (an early morning church service), also French matin

medico, doctor — medic, medical

mese, month — cognate with menses, trimester (3 months), semester (six months); also Spanish mes and French mois

mezzogiorno, noon — break it down into mezzo-giorno = mid-day

miglio, mile — cognates, and related to migliaia, thousand, from the Roman mile being 1000 paces

miniera, mine — cognates

modo, manner, way — mode

mondo, world — mundane (worldly, belonging to the world), also French monde, Spanish mundo

muro, wall — mural, immured

nascita, birth — nascent, renaissance

negozio, store, shop — negotiate

nemico, enemy — inimical, enemy

notte, night — nocturnal, and indeed night

nube, cloud — nebula, nebulous

onda, wave — undulate

oro, gold — auric, French or

orologio, watch, clock — horology

ossigeno, oxygen — cognates

osso, bone — ossify

ovest, west — cognates, also French ouest, Spanish oeste

padre, father — padre, pater, paternal, paternity

pane, bread — French pain, as in pain au chocolat; also Spanish pan

passo, step — pace

pensiero, thought — pensive, also French penser

pensione, board — pension

pesce, fish — Pisces, piscatory, also Spanish pez, and French poisson

pezzo, piece — cognates (also, you can think of a piece of pizza!)

pianeta, planet — cognates

piano, plane, plan, floor — cognates

piazza, square, plaza — plaza

piede, foot — pedal, pedestrian, also French pied, Spanish pie

piedi, feet — as before

pista, track — French piste, as in the English expression "off piste"

porta, door — portal, also French porte

primavera, spring — prima is cognate with primary (1st) and vera with vernal (relating to spring)

prossimo, neighbor — proximal, proximate

radice, root — radish

re, king — rex

riva, shore — river

rotolo, roll — rotate, roll

ruota, wheel — rotate, rota

sedia, chair — sedan chair, sedentary

sedile, seat — ditto

seme, seed — semen

soggetto, subject — cognates

soldato, soldier — cognates

soldi, money — solid, an old coin called the solidus, also French sol, sou

sorella, sister — sorority, also French sœur, Spanish sor

speranza, hope — esperance, desperate (out of hope), also Spanish esperanza, French espérer

spettacolo, show — spectacle

suolo, soil — cognate with French sol, Spanish suelo

suono, sound — cognates, also French son, Spanish son, sueno

superficie, surface — superficial

uovo, egg — ovary, also French œuf, Spanish huevo

viaggio, trip — voyage

vocale, vowel — vocal (because vowels are voiced by the vocal cords with little restriction on them, in an open way)

voce, voice — cognates

volontà, will — voluntary

zucchero, sugar — cognates

 

 

Group 4

harder cognates, where the links are more obscure:

acciaio, steel — the common root means sharp; cognate with acid, acerbic, acrimony

ala, wing — cognate with alar, agile, axle

albero, tree — cognate with arbor, arboreal, arboretum, also French arbre

azienda, company — cognate with hacienda

bastone, stick — cognate with bâton

caccia, hunt — cognate with catch

camera, room — used in the expression in camera, and cognate with bicameral, chamber, cabaret

camion, truck — comes from French camion, which has passed the word into many languages, including English; may derive from chemin, meaning way, path (see Spanish camino)

cappotto, coat — cognate with cape

carica, charge (as in attack), load — cognates, also car, chariot (think of a chariot charge and a car's load)

carta, paper — cognate with card, chart

cerchio, circle — cognates, also circus

chiamata, call — cognate with claim, declaim, proclaim

chiave, key — cognate with clavis, clavichord, clavicle, clef

collina, hill — cognates, also column, colliculus (anatomical term)

colpo, blow — cognate with the English/French word coup (coup de foudre, coup d'état, coup de grâce)

coppia, pair — cognate with couple; could also think of copied

cosa, thing — cognate with cause, also French chose

cuore, heart — cognate with core, accord, also French cœur

domanda, question, request, demand — cognate with demand

estate, summer — cognate with estivate/aestivate, estival/aestival, also French été

età, age — cognate with eternal, eon

figlio, son — cognate with filial, also French fils

filo, wire — cognate with filament, file

fiume, river — cognate with fluvial, flume, fluent, fluid

folla, crowd — cognate with full, folk, also French foule

fornitura, supply — cognate with furniture, furnish

foro, hole — cognate with door, forum, forensic

fretta, hurry — cognate with Fr frit, meaning fried (as in pommes frites), and indeed English fry, fried

fuoco, fire — cognate with focus (think of the hearth historically being the focus of the home or room)

gamba, leg — cognate with gambol, and French jambe

gamma, range — cognate with gamut, and of course the Greek letter gamma (but this doesn't point to the meaning in the same way)

ghiaccio, ice — cognate with glacier, and French glace (ice, ice cream)

gioco, game — cognate with joke, juggle, also French jeu, Spanish juego

giro, ride, tour, turn — cognate with gyrate

grido, cry — may be cognate with cry, also Spanish gritar

inverno, winter — cognate with hibernate, also French hiver

lattina, can, tin (diminutive of latta, meaning the same thing) — cognate with lath, lattice (all to do with being thin, narrow)

legge, law — cognate with legal

legno, wood — cognate with ligneous, lignite

letto, bed — cognate with litter (think of the litter used for carrying the sick or wounded, not trash), also French lit

lotta, fight, struggle — cognate with lock, locket, through a root meaning to bend, twist; also French lutte, Spanish lucha

mela, apple — cognate with melon

metà, half — cognate with median, mediate

moglie, wife — cognate with moll, mollify, Molly

neve, snow — cognate with Nevada, névé, nival, and indeed snow; also French neige, Spanish nieve

occhio, eye — cognate with ocular, oculist, monocle, and indeed eye; also Spanish ojo

orecchio, ear — cognate with aural, auricular, ear, also ‎French oreille

paese, country — cognate with peace, also French pays, Spanish país

parola, word — cognate with palaver, parole, parlay, parable, also Spanish palabra

paura, fear — cognate with French peur (also quite similar to fear)

pece, pitch — cognates

pelle, skin — cognate with pelt, pellagra, film

pericolo, danger, peril

peso, weight — cognate with suspend, pound, expense, pensive

piega, crease, fold, pleat — cognate with pleat, replica, duplicate

pietra, stone — cognate with petrify (literally, turn to stone), also French pierre, Spanish piedra

pulcino, chick — cognate with pullet, also French poulet, poule

punteggio, score — may be cognate with point (as in score a point)

rabbia, anger, rabies — cognate with rabies, rage

raccolto, crop — cognate with recollect, collect

raggio, radius, spoke — cognate with radius

ramo, branch — cognate with root, ramus, ramification (branching)

ricerca, search, research —  cognates, also French chercher (Cherchez la femme!)

richiesta, claim, request, demand — cognate with require, request

rumore, noise — cognate with rumour

schiavo, slave — cognates

secolo, century — secular (from the Latin saeculum meaning generation, century, and also worldly), also French siècle, Spanish siglo

sega, saw — cognate with saw, dissect, secant, segment (notice the cutting theme)

sonno, sleep — cognate with somnolent

sostantivo, noun — cognate with substantive, with core of word (stant) cognate with stand; think of a noun as a substantive thing that stands, that is, a concrete object

spalla, shoulder — cognate with spatula, spatulate (think of the broad, flat nature of the shoulder blade), epaulettes, also Spanish espalda

tempo, weather — cognate with tempo, tempest, also French temps, Spanish tiempo

vece, stead, place (as in, in my place, in my stead) — cognate with vice versa, vice (meaning in place of, subordinate to), also week, vicissitude, vicar

vela, sail — cognate with veil, velum (a thin membrane like a veil)

vestito, dress — cognate with vestiment, vest, divest

vetro, glass — cognate with vitreous, vitrify, also French verre, vitre, and Spanish vidrio

 

Group 5

Those with with the hardest connections:

anatra, duck — cognate with an obscure English word, anatine, also German Ente

bisogno, need — cognate with French besoin; a possible keyword for those unfamiliar with this word is bison

bocca, mouth — another obscure cognate: buccal (relating to the cheek), also French bouche (as in Fermez la bouche!)

braccio, arm, branch — cognate with brachial; not cognate with branch, but similarity useful

bugia, lie — cognate with boast

cambiamento, a change, shift, turn — cognate with change, although not very obvious; perhaps clearer if you know that cambiamento derives from cambiare, to change, and the English comes from French changier

guscio, shell — may be cognate with cyst

pioggia, rain — cognate with pluvial, flood, float, also French pluie

pipistrello, bat — used to be vipistrello, which makes the link to cognates vespers (evening prayers) and western (where the sun sets) more obvious

pollice, inch, thumb — cognate with obscure word pollical (of the thumb), also French pouce (thumb, inch)

ruscello, stream — cognate with rivulet, also French ruisseau (but may be easier to go with a keyword: the rushing stream)

sabbia, sand — cognates from a root meaning to pour, also French sable

salita, climb — cognate with saltatory, saltation, also French sauter

scarpa, shoe — cognate with sharp, derives from Gothic word meaning sharp object with pointed ends, because shoes had a pointed end?

sentiero, path — cognate with French sentier, Spanish sendero; apparently not cognate with send, sent, but PIE root word *sent- meant to go, to travel, so could be considered so

sera, evening — here's an obscure cognate that some might know: serotine (a bat); more familiarly probably: French soir (as in bonsoir), and Spanish sera

settimana, week — cognate with September, through the sept=7 connection; also French semaine, Spanish semana

slittamento, slip, sliding — not cognate, but similarity sufficient for imagining so

sorriso, smile — cognate with risible (laughable) and riant (laughing); sorriso derives from Latin sub-rideo (below a laugh, as it were); also cognate with French sourire, souriant

stagione, season — cognate with station, also Spanish estación

taglio, cut — cognate with tagliatelle, intaglio

testa, head — cognate with French tête, Spanish testa

uccello, bird — cognate with avian, aviary, also French oiseau

 

Group 6

Those with no connections. These are the ones for which a mnemonic link is recommended, and I’ve provided some suggestions:

cantiere, shipyard, building site — canter into the yard

cibo, food — chip (actually cognate with ciborium, a receptacle for communion wafers, if you happen to know it; also Spanish cebo)

elenco, list — elect to the list

gara, race — cheer the race

mucca, cow — moo cow

partita, (sports) match, game — participate in the game (actually cognate with a musical term in English, if you happen to know it)

ragazza, girl / ragazzo, boy — ragged urchin

scatola, box — casket

scheda, card — the schedule is written on the card

se stesso, self — stetson

tuta, suit (sweatsuit, tracksuit, overalls) — tutu

volto, face — think of the expression volte face

 

 

Vocabulary is a sticking point for many language learners. That’s because words have a certain arbitrary quality that makes them hard to memorize. There are two strategies which are very effective with this task: the keyword mnemonic, and retrieval practice. I have written about these extensively in my books Mnemonics for Study, and How to revise & practice. But you need thousands of words to have any degree of fluency, and you’ll be much quicker to reach that level if you don’t have to apply these strategies to all words. Which is where we come to the relative ease of learning different languages. One of the main factors determining the ease or difficulty of mastering another language is the degree to which it shares vocabulary with the language(s) you know.

If you’ve done any study of a language related to your own, you’ll know about cognates. They’re the words that are easiest to learn because they’re similar to the words you already know, because they’re descended from the same root word. So, for example, ‘important’ is cognate with:

• French important
• Spanish importante
• Portuguese importante
• Italian importante
• Romanian important

That’s a very obvious set! The reason is that these are all Romance languages — they descend from Latin. In this case, from Latin importans. Clearly, if you were learning the word in any of these languages, you wouldn’t even bother ‘learning’ it.

While English has much in common with the Romance languages, because of its extensive borrowing from French after the Norman Invasion (and also because of the strong influence of Latin, being the language of the Church and scholars for so many centuries), it is at heart a Germanic language. Let’s have a look at the Germanic words for this term:

• German wichtig
• Frisian wichtich
• Norwegian viktig
• Swedish viktig
• Danish vigtig
• Icelandic mikilvægt

This last one is less clearly part of the set, but you can see the relationship if you separate it into mikil-vægt.

All this appears completely unrelated to English, but in fact there is a relationship. Another word for important is weighty, and indeed, ‘weight’ and ‘weighty’ are cognate with these Germanic words, as is Dutch wichtig (meaning bulky), and German Gewicht (weight).

If you were learning German, and simply tried to memorize ‘wichtig = important’, there’s nothing to hook onto for your memory. However, if instead you were to think of it as ‘wichtig = weighty, important’, the new word becomes much easier to remember.

(A side-note for those interested in this sort of thing: the Germanic set are descended from the Proto-Indo-European word *weǵh-, while the Romance set are descended from *per-; intriguingly, both words have similar meanings of to bring, to transport, to carry forth.)

Let’s have a look at a fuller cognate cluster (this is a truncated set of the one appearing in the Indo-European Cognate Dictionary; for a full example of a cognate cluster, see my blog post). This is the cluster descending from the Proto-Indo-European word for hundred:

*ḱm̥tóm

hundred

Germanic: hundred (Eng); hundred (OE); hûndert (Fris); honderd (Dut); Hundert (Ger); hundrað (Norse); hundre (Nor); hundra (Swe); hundrede (Dan); hundrað (Ice)

Celtic: cant (Wel); céad (Iri)

Italic: centum, centuria, centēnārius (Lat);

cent, centurie, centenaire (Fr);

cento, centuria (Ital);

cien, ciento, centuria, centenario (Sp);

cem, cento, centúria (Port);

cent, centurie (Rom)

Derivatives: cent, centimeter/centimetre, century, centennial, centenary, percentage (Eng);

centi-, centimeter (Dut); Zenturie, Zentner (Ger); centimeter (Nor); centimeter (Swe); centi-, centimeter (Dan);

κεντηνάριον (kentēnárion) (AnGk); центу́рия (centúrija) (Rus); qind, njëqind (Alb)

Hellenic: ἑκατόν (hekatón) (AnGk); εκατό (ekató) (Gk)

Derivatives: hecato- (Eng)

Slavic: сто (sto) (Rus); sto (Pol); sto (Cz); sto (Slo); сто (sto) (Mace)

Baltic: šim̃tas (Lith); simts (Latv)

Indo-Iranian: शत (śatá), शतम् (śatam) (Sans); सौ (sau) (Hin); سل‏ (səl) (Pash); صد‏ (sad) (Pers)

It is not in any way obvious that hundred and cent are related (except in meaning), but two patterns make the relationship clearer.

First of all, there’s a fundamental distinction between the ‘Western’ and ‘Eastern’ branches of the Indo-European tree, that’s expressed as the kentum-satem divide. This reflects the fact that most of the Western languages have a word for hundred that begins with a hard k sound, like Latin centum, while in the Eastern languages, the word for hundred begins with a soft s sound, as in the Sanskrit word satem. This distinction between a hard k and a soft s sound is thought to reflect a very early split in the Proto-Indo-European tribes, as some headed west and others east. Note how that Western-Eastern divide plays out in the branches:

Western (kentum): Celtic, Germanic, Italic, Greek, Anatolian

Eastern (satem): Balto-Slavic, Armenian, Albanian, Indo-Iranian

The second pattern is that in the Germanic languages, as Grimm’s laws describe, k becomes h, and t becomes d. So, *ḱm̥tóm becomes (eventually) hundred.

These patterns are why English has hundred, while words relating to hundred are based on cent (from Latin) or (more academically) hecato (from Ancient Greek).

This cluster can be used by anyone learning a language represented in the cluster, if they already know another of the languages in the cluster. For more examples of cognates specific to English and another language in the Indo-European family, see these:

Using cognates to learn Italian vocabulary

(more to follow)

Find out about the pegword mnemonic

Here are pegwords I've thought up in the Spanish language.

As with the original example, let's try it out with our cranial nerves.

En español, los nervios craneales son:

1. olfatorio
2. óptico
3. motor ocular comun
4. troclear
5. trigémino
6. abducens
7. facial
8. auditivo
9. glosofaríngeo
10. neumogástrico
11. accesorio
12. hipogloso

Each mnemonic image contains the pegword image plus something to denote the cranial nerve. In some cases, that can be very simple. But if the name of the nerve is less obvious, there will be items that refer to the function of the nerve and ones that provide keywords to the name. Such keywords are written in bold.

1 es el vino y nervio craneal 1 es olfatorio — una botella de vino que se vierte en un orificio nasal:

1 is wine and cranial nerve 1 is olfactory — a bottle of wine is pushed into a nostril:

2 es un oso y nervio craneal 2 es óptico — el oso usa una lupa para leer el periódico:

2 is a bear and cranial nerve 2 is optic — the bear uses a magnifying glass to read the newspaper:

3  es un tren y nervio craneal 3 es motor ocular comun — grandes gafas de protección en el motociclista que salta el tren:

3 is a train and cranial nerve 3 is oculomotor — big goggles on the motorcyclist who is jumping the train:

4 es un cuadro y nervio craneal 4 es troclear — imagina trocear el cuadro del ojo:

4 is a picture and cranial nerve 4 is trochlear — imagine cutting the picture of an eye:

5 es un banco y nervio craneal 5 es trigémino — relacionado con la mandíbula, por lo que tres gemas caen de una mandíbula en el banco:

5 is a bench and cranial nerve 5 is trigeminal — relating to the jaw, so three gems fall from a jaw onto the bench:

6 es el maíz y nervio craneal 6 es abducens — también en relación con el ojo, por lo que un ojo cae sobre el maíz tirado en el adoquín:

6 is corn and cranial nerve 6 is abducens — also relating to the eye, so an eye falling on the corn lying on the paving stones:

7 es un diente y nervio craneal 7 es facial — nuestro diente feliz rebotando de una boca en una cara sonriente:

7 is a tooth and cranial nerve 7 is facial — our happy tooth bouncing from the mouth on a smiley face:

8  es un ojo y nervio craneal 8 es auditivo — un ojo entre dos orejas:

8 is an eye and cranial nerve is auditory — an eye between two ears:

9 es un nave y nervio craneal 9 es glosofaríngeo — se relaciona con la garganta, por lo que aquí un hombre está a punto de tragar la nave espacial, mientras que un faraón escribe una glosa:

9 is a ship and cranial nerve 9 is glossopharyngeal — relating to the throat, so here is a man about to swallow the spaceship, while a pharaoh writes a commentary, a gloss:

10 es un pez y nervio craneal 10 es neumogástrico — conectado al corazón, así que un pez saltando a traves de un neumático para alcanzar un corazón:

10 is a fish and cranial nerve 10 is vagus — connected to the heart, so fish jumping through a tyre to reach a heart:

11 es un guante y nervio craneal 11 es accesorio — se relaciona con la cabeza, entonces un guante y una cabeza encogida en una bolsa (un accesorio):

11 is a glove and cranial nerve 11 is accessory — relating to the head, so a glove and a shrunken head in a bag:

12 es un coche y nervio craneal 12 es hipogloso — en relación con la lengua, por lo que un hipodérmico adormece la lengua cuando un automóvil pasa sobre ella:

12 is a car and cranial nerve 12 is hypoglossal — relating to the tongue, so a hypodermic injecting the tongue as a car drives onto it:

To celebrate Māori Language Week here in Aotearoa (New Zealand), here's some mnemonics to help you learn 25 common words in te reo. These use the keyword mnemonic. Keywords are written in italics.

aroha (love), an arrow in the heart

awa (river), a water flowing

hīkoi (walk), hike

hui (gathering, meeting), a lot of hooey is spoken at meetings!

iti (small), itty bitty

iwi (tribe), I and we make a tribe

kai (food), food for the Kaiser

karakia (prayer), no prayer against karate

kaumatua (elder), it's always calm out for the elders

mahi (work or activity) Ma and he work hard

manuhiri (guests, visitors), Get a menu here for guests

moana (sea), A moaner on the sea

motu (island), The island has a mob too

nui (large, many, big), Many big things sound new

puku (belly, stomach), Poke the stomach

taihoa (to delay, to wait), We can delay if you tie the hoer

tama (son, young man), The young man said, Ta, Ma

tamāhine (daughter), He gave his daughter a tomato

tipuna/ tupuna (ancestor ), Tip one for the ancestor

wahine (woman, wife), What he knew about the woman

wai (water), Why water?

waiata (song or chant), Why utter a song?

whaikōrero (the art and practise of speech-making ), Fight corny speeches

whānau (extended family), My family is far now

whenua (land, homeland), When you come home to the land.

You can see more common Māori words at MāoriLanguage.net

Find more resources in te reo

 

 

Find out about the pegword mnemonic

To celebrate Māori Language Week here in Aotearoa (New Zealand), I've put together a pegword set in te reo:

1. tahi — ahi
2. rua — ua
3. toru — tūru
4. whā — taniwha
5. rima — rama
6. ono — hono
7. whitu — whatu
8. waru — karu
9. iwa — taraiwa
10. tekau — rākau

The taniwha is taken from an image posted by Archives New Zealand. www.archway.archives.govt.nz/ViewFullItem.do?code=18810047